HARLEY ATKINSON

Entries to the Encyclopedia of Christian Education       https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780810884922

 

 

The Jesuits

Harley T. Atkinson

 

The Jesuits are members of the Roman Catholic male order known as the Society of Jesus. The humble beginnings of the order took place in 1534 when Spaniard Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) and fellow university students each took a vow serve God and offer their services to the Pope to perform whatever commands he gave them (Boehmer 1928, 57-8). In 1539 the Company of Jesus was organized with the draft of regulations known as the Formula Instituti (65). The Pope sanctioned the new order in 1540 in the papal bull Regimini Militantis Ecclesiae, and Loyola was elected as its first general (66-67).

 

Very quickly the Jesuits became a prominent society of, “church reform, organizers of Christian instruction, founders of a new method of preaching and of new methods of practice in the confessional, restorers of the true nature of ecclesiastical organizations and of the Church’s works of mercy” (71-72). But the society became best known for its two interconnected purposes of the education of young boys and countering the Protestant Reformation. It was primarily through the establishment of schools and superior teaching that they gained a measure of success in arresting the Protestant movement in select regions. By the 17th and 18th centuries the renowned Jesuit educational system had been firmly established across Europe, providing education for lay boys and clerics alike (Aveling 1981, 212-3). The Jesuits deemed the education of young people as the key to achieving the aim of countering the humanism of Protestant schools and universities. René Fülöp -Miller (1963) notes that between 1600 and 1700, they were so successful in their quest that even, “Protestant parents were entrusting their children to the Jesuits” (405).

 

The teaching of the Jesuit institutions were arranged in three stages, described by Fülöp-Miller (1963), as follows:

 

The lowest or “Grammar” class, in which Latin was taught, was intended merely for the thorough exercise of the memory; the following classes in the “Humanities” and “Rhetoric” were to develop the formulation of ideas . . . . The final stage, that of “Dialectics,” was intended to enable students correctly to assess the importance of contradictory arguments, and to accustom them not merely to solve contradictions by an affirmative or a negative, but in accordance with the methods of mediaeval scholasticism, to raise them to a higher unity. (408)

 

The Jesuits were very careful to systemize their subject matter and only prescribed curriculum, textbooks, interpretations and doctrines were used. Naturally, writes Manfred Barthel (1984), curriculum was “limited to those subjects and opinions that enjoyed the full endorsement of the Church” (115). While this all made for a universal approach to teaching, the system discouraged independent and reflective thinking. For example, Boehmer states, theologians “were compelled to accept the interpretation of a passage in the Bible made by the popes or ecumenical councils as binding in every respect” (116).

 

With all the advances and successes achieved by the Jesuit Order in education, even for good Catholics they have been the subject of contention. Robert Ulich (1968) proposes that,

 

The older Orders disliked the infiltration into their established domains, and the secular clergy disliked it tendency to undermine the few remnants of national independence left by the council of Trent. There were also differences of opinion in regard to the dogma, especially the concept of grace. Jesuits destroyed even the work of reform attempted by more liberal Catholic clergymen and educators, while the universities regarded with suspicion the intrusion of Jesuit politics. (125)

 

Yet the legacy of the Jesuits in the field of education can hardly be denied. Today there are 3,730 Jesuit educational institutions around the world, serving 2.5 million students. In the United States there are 71 secondary or pre-secondary schools for boys and girls. There are twenty-eight colleges and universities in the United States affiliated with the Society of Jesus including Loyola, Xavier, Georgetown, Boston College, Fordham, and Gonzaga (Jesuits). Canadian Jesuit schools of higher education include St. Bonaventure College and St. Mary’s University.

 

Bibliography

Aveling, J. C. H. The Jesuits. New York: Dorset Press, 1981.

Barthel, Manfred. The Jesuits: History and Legend of the Society of Jesus (trans. by M. Howson). New York: William Morrow and Company, 1984.

Boehmer, Heinrich. The Jesuits: An Historical Study (trans. by P. Zeller Strodach). Philadelphia: The Castle Press, 1928.

Fülöp -Miller, René. The Jesuits: A History of the Society of Jesus (trans. by F.S. Flint and D.F. Tait). New York: Capricorn Books, 1963.

Jesuits. Accessed February 19. 2013. http://www.jesuit.org/worldwide/education/.

Ulich, Robert. A History of Religious Education. New York: New York University Press, 1968.

 

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School of Caesarea

Harley T. Atkinson

 

The school at Caesarea was established by Origen (A.D. 184/5-254/5) after he was expelled from the school at Alexandria and subsequently made Caesarea in Palestine his home (234 AD). While sometimes called a catechetical school (Anthony and Benson 2003, 111), it may have been less so than others in that in addition to clerics, pagans and neophytes frequented the school. Nonetheless, according to church historian Philip Schaff (1996), this new philosophical and theological institution soon outshone his former one at Alexandria (789).

 

One of the early Church fathers who advocated an integrative approach to Christian education, Origin promoted the study of disciplines beyond theology. In his letter to St. Gregory (A. D. 213-270) one of his most renowned students, he writes,

 

But I am anxious that you should devote all the strength of your natural good parts to Christianity for your end; and in order to this, I wish to ask you to extract from the philosophy of the Greeks what may serve as a course of study or a preparation for Christianity, and from geometry and astronomy what will serve to explain the sacred Scriptures, in order that all that the sons of the philosophers are wont to say about geometry and music, grammar, rhetoric, and astronomy, as fellow-helpers to philosophy, we may say about philosophy itself, in relation to Christianity. (Origin 1989, 393)

 

Gregory (1998), in a letter of his own to Origin, gives insight to the practices and methods of the teacher at Caesarea, bringing his students from the irrational to the rational:

 

He raised us up and put us straight with other lessons, those in physics, explaining each existing thing, and analyzing them with great wisdom down to their most basic elements, and then weaving them together by reason and going over the nature of the entire universe and each of its parts . . .. In the end he brought us, by his clear teaching and the arguments . . . to the point where a rational wonder replaced the irrational one in our souls. (109)

 

Gregory gives further clue to Origin’s methodology, as he goes on to say, “he would trip us up in speech, challenging us in thoroughly Socratic fashion, every time he saw us fighting the reins like unbroken horses, veering off the road and running aimlessly every which way” (107). He taught by example and was concerned that his students were masters not only of doctrine, but of impulses, deeds and virtues as well (113). Curriculum or content was taught according to the division of philosophy at the time, including logic (a blend of dialectics and criticism), physics (above all geometry and astronomy), moral doctrine, and theology (Crouzel 1967, 1044-5).

 

The school at Caesarea was a place of learning not only for St. Gregory Thaumaturgaus, but for many other early church leaders as well, including St. Basil the Great (A. D. 329-379) and Gregory of Nazianzusas (A. D. 325-389). Here also, Origin and Pamphilus (d. A. D. 309) built the famous library that boasted the most extensive clerical collection of sources at that time, approximately 30,000 rolls.

 

 

Bibliography

 

Anthony, Michael and Warren Benson. Exploring the History & Philosophy of Christian Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel, 2003.

Crouzel, H. “School of Caesarea” in New Catholic Encyclopedia, edited by William J. McDonald, 1044-5. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America, 1963.

Origin. “A Letter Fromm Origin to Gregory” in The Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 4. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1989.

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church, vol. 2. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1858/1996.

St. Gregory. “Address of Thanksgiving to Origen.” In St. Gregory Thaumaturgus: Life and Works (trans. Michael Slussor), edited by Thomas P. Halton et al., 91-126. Washington, D. C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1998.

 

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The Byzantine Medieval Church

Harley T. Atkinson

 

The Byzantine Empire, according to most historians, came into being when the city of Constantinople (or new Rome) was established in 324 AD and ended when the Ottoman Turks besieged that same city in 1453. During those eleven centuries the Empire experienced significant transformations both politically and geographically (Mango 1980, 1). For the most part the geographical center was between the Black Sea and the Eastern part of Mediterranean Sea. At times, the Empire existed as far west as Italy and Spain and embraced parts of North Africa. While multiple people groups and languages existed in the expansive territory, Greek and Latin were the languages that predominated, and the Greek population eventually survived as the core people group. In reality, there never was a Byzantine Empire, a contemporary scholarly term of reference, rather it was an ever-evolving Roman Empire.

 

From its onset, Christianity spread throughout the region that would ultimately be known as the Byzantine Empire. Christians, however, were widely persecuted, and by the end of the third century persecution of Christians peaked under Diocletian and Maximian. With the Edict of Milan (313) toleration for both pagan and Christian subjects was proclaimed, and in 381 Theodosius I declared Christianity to be the state religion. Discord and theological differences plagued the Empire and Church until the Great Schism occurred in 1054. At this point in history the Church divided into the Eastern (Greek) and Latin (Roman) branches. The Eastern faction eventually became known as the Eastern or Greek Orthodox Church (also known as Byzantium) and the western faction, the Roman Catholic Church (Anthony and Benson 2003, 136).

 

The Byzantine society, for at least its middle and upper classes, was an educated society (Hussey 1961, 145), and as Christianity triumphed over paganism, liberal education continued unchanged since the Hellenistic period (Mango 1980, 125). The instruction of boys (and occasionally girls) comprised of three stages: primary, secondary, and higher education. Education in the primary school included the rudimentary subjects of reading, writing, counting, and knowledge of the alphabet. The secondary stage was supervised by a more qualified teacher and taught basic grammar as well as a selected number of classical authors, especially the works of Homer. The method of studying the texts included four operations of 1) correction, 2) reading aloud (recitation of the text), 3) explanation, and 4) criticism (identifying the moral lessons). Higher education, available only to students of the wealthier families, included rhetoric, philosophy, science, medicine, and law (125-6).

 

In the early Byzantine years catechetical schools dominated Christian education. These schools emerged out of a need to equip able men to lead the church and supplied the early church with some of its greatest minds and apologists (Eavey 1964, 88). Chief among the catechetical schools was the school at Alexandria, though others developed at centers such as Caesarea, Edessa, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Nisibis. The methods and teaching strategies of the catechetical schools differed greatly from those of the contemporary schools. While some instruction occurred in groups, much of the teaching took place on an individual basis and in the homes of the tutors and instructors (Mulholland 2001, 111). In the universities that evolved from the catechetical schools, classical literature prevailed, whereas the monasteries were dedicated more so to the investigation and study of Christian writings (Elias 2002, 231).

 

Perhaps no other aspect of Byzantine education was more important than the monastic schools. Monasticism was a lay movement and emerged in two forms—the solitary and the communal. Regarding the former, these monastics were ascetics or solitaries who took up residences in the mountains and deserts. This type of monastic life was modeled by St. Anthony (251-356), an early leader of Eastern monasticism who, “often went without sleep, never washed and never anointed his body with oil” (Mango 1980, 106). The communal form of monasticism brought together religious men with like desires to retreat from the evil effects of society. Early Byzantine monasteries often formed around learned teachers such as St. Basil the Great (329/330-379) and Pachomius (d. 346). According to John Elias, the theology that characterized the Byzantium church emerged as monastic theology, since the monks were the defenders and proponents of Orthodox teachings (2002, 228). He goes on to suggest that Christian education that developed in this period also had liturgical, spiritual, mystical, and formative marks of monasticism (228).

 

 

Bibliography

 

Anthony, Michael and Warren Benson. Exploring the History & Philosophy of Christian Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel, 2003.

Eavey, C. B. History of Christian Education. Chicago: Moody Press, 1964.

Elias, John. A History of Christian Education: Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: Kreiger Publishing, 2002.

Gangel, Kenn and Warren Benson. Christian Education: Its History and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody Press, 1983.

Hussey, J. M. The Byzantine World. New York: Harper & Row, 1961.

Mango, Cyril. Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980.

Mulholland, D. A. C. “Catechetical School of Alexandria.” In Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Michael Anthony, 110-111. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001.

Treadgold, Warren T. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.

 

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The Continental Reformation and Educational Principles

Harley T. Atkinson

 

The Reformation movement embraced transformation in education as much as it did theological and ecclesiastical reform. In reality, new patterns in education were the logical and natural results of a renewed emphasis on theological principles.

 

Theological Principles and Educational Reform

 

The main theological issues that led to church and educational reform were threefold. The first was the supremacy of Scripture or sola scriptura. Sola scriptura affirmed the notion that the final authority of faith and practice was the Scriptures. Martin Luther (1483-1546) and other reformers believed taught that believers should not have to be reliant on the interpretation of Scripture by popes, church councils, or other clergy, as had been the dominating view for centuries (Anthony and Benson 2003, 199; Pazmiño 1997, 144).

 

 The second principle was justification by faith or sola fide. Luther insisted that one acquired salvation by a genuine confession of sin and sincere repentance, and came through faith alone (Rom. 1:17). The Catholic Church had been teaching that salvation was gained through works and by the purchases of indulgences. A third principle taught the priesthood of all believers, meaning every individual who had a personalized faith could be his or her own priest and had access to God through a personal relationship with Jesus Christ. This theological position threatened the very structure of the Catholic Church (Anthony and Benson 2003, 199; Pazmiño 1997, 144; Ulich 1968, 108-9).

 

The consequence of these principles was educational reform that led to a new vision for universal education. If each individual was personally responsible to God in regard to knowing Scripture, having a personalized faith, and being his or her own priest, every person must be equipped to read and study the Scriptures. Until education reform came, only the well-educated minority could do this (Pazmiño 1997, 144; Lamb 2001, 586). Educational reform took place on four fronts—the home, the church, state-supported schools for children, and universities.

 

Educational Reform and the Home

 

Luther emphasized home education for children as the crux of his educational philosophy. C. B. Eavey (1964) adequately summarizes Luther’s view of family education as follows:

 

He maintained that home training and obedience produced sound family life, and that sound family life is the foundation of good government on all levels. He contended that no one ought to become a father unless he could teach his children bible truth. He declared also that we must be taught from birth if God’s kingdom is to grow. He strongly censured laxity in parents and wrong methods of training. (147)

 

Likewise, John Calvin (1509-1564) believed that children be carefully taught by parents in the context of the home and family (Eavey 1964, 150; Reed and Prevost 1993, 198).

 

Educational Reform and State Schools

 

While Luther emphasized education in the home, he believed that parental teaching was insufficient in the educating of children. In a Letter to the Mayors and Aldermen of All the Cities of Germany on Behalf of Christian Schools, he argued that schools should provide a well-rounded education that included Latin, Greek, and Hebrew (Lamb 2001, 586). Nothing was more important to Luther, however, that public schools equip every person to read the Bible (Ulich 1968,109). Luther’s close associate and master educator Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560) founded the Saxony school system, the forerunner of the modern state school system (Eavey 1964, 148; Gangel and Benson 1983, 142-3; Lamb 2001, 586). In Switzerland, both Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) in Zurich, and Calvin in Geneva, introduced elementary and secondary schools for children and youth (Eavey 1964, 149-150).

 

Educational Reform in Higher Education

 

Reforming higher education was a part of the agenda of Lutherans and Calvinists alike. For Luther’s part, he was merciless in his criticism of the universities of his time. Christopher Lucas (1994) summarizes Luther’s harsh assessment of universities as follows: “they were . . . dens of murderers, temples of Moloch, synagogues of corruption, ‘nests of gloomy ignorance’ grown moribund under the weight of scholasticism and unbending tradition; and ‘nothing more hellish . . . ever appeared on earth . . . or ever would appear’” (85). For all the efforts of Lutheran reformers, however, that significant or dramatic changes were few and far between (85). On the other hand, where the legacy of Calvin predominated significant university reform took place. French Huguenots establish eight universities in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and Calvin himself founded the famous Geneva Academy in 1557, which included a Schola publica.  The Schola eventually became the University of Geneva (Lucas 1994, 86; Gangel and Benson 1983, 145-6). Other Calvinist universities were founded in continental Europe in Leiden (1575, Amsterdam (1632), and Utrecht (1636) (Lamb 2001, 586).

 

Educational Reform and the Church

 

With the advent of the Reformations, various groups sought for renewal of education in the church. Calvin, for example, believe that children should be given a religious education not only in the home, but that they should also attend catechetical classes on Sunday with emphasis in doctrine, manners, and morals,  (Eavey 1964, 150). His Catechism of the Church at Geneva, employed a question and answer approach designed to be used between the pastor and children. The Anabaptists also use the catechetical approach to teaching believers prior to baptism, as reflected in a 1527 publication, A Christian Catechism That Every Person Should Know Before he is Baptized in Water (Habermas 2001, 112).

 

Bibliography

 

Anthony, Michael and Warren Benson. Exploring the History & Philosophy of Christian Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel, 2003.

Eavey, C. B. History of Christian Education. Chicago: Moody Press.1964.

Gangel, Kenneth O. and Warren S. Benson. Christian Education: Its History and Philosophy. Chicago: Moody Press, 1983.

Habermas, Ronald. T. “Catechism.” In Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Michael Anthony, 111-3. Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2001.

Lamb, Robert L. “The Reformation.” In Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Michael Anthony, 584-6. Grand Rapids MI: Baker Academic, 2001.

Lucas, Christopher J. American Higher Education. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1994.

Pazmiño, Robert W. Foundational Issues in Christian Education 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1997.

Reed, James E. and Ronnie Prevost. A History of Christian Education. Nashville: Broadman &Holman Publishers, 1993.

Ulich, Robert. A History of Religious Education. New York: New York University Press, 1968.

 

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Roger Bacon

Harley T. Atkinson

 

Roger Bacon (c. 1214 - c. 1294) was an English philosopher, Franciscan friar, Oxford professor, and man of science. He was born near Ilchester in Somerset, England and as a celebrated theologian, scientist, and philosopher, was bestowed, with the scholastic accolade Doctor Mirabilis, meaning "wonderful teacher." Bacon was trained in the scholarly disciplines of logic and natural philosophy at Oxford and as a philosopher and scientist, he “helped to revolutionize the perception of man’s place in the physical world” (Reed and Prevost 1993, 171).

 

 Upon becoming a Franciscan friar (c. 1257) he anticipated becoming a teacher, but for whatever the reasons, that did not come to pass and he continued as an independent scholar (Hackett). As an early witness to revival of Aristotelian thought in European universities, Bacon is regarded as the originator of experimental research and often called the “father of experimental science.” In 1265 Pope Clement IV commissioned Bacon to write on scientific matters and in a year-and-a-half he completed a trilogy of works, the Opus Majus, the Opus Minus and the Opus Tertium. In the Opus Majus he emphasized the need for including the study of science and nature within the curriculum (Anthony and Benson 2003, 165). Furthermore, he noted that science should augment the study of theology, the queen of the sciences. He argued that both reason and authority could furnish valid knowledge only when supported by experimental research (Burns 1968, 377-8).

 

Along with fellow Franciscans Duns Scotus and William of Occum, Bacon challenged the system of inquiry ascertained by St. Thomas Aquinas. He believed that Aquinas did not allow for the knowledge of God to be discovered through direct human experience or what came to be known as the scientific method. In his mind Aquinas had developed a harmful or unhealthy dependence on Aristotle regarding matters of science (Elias 2002, 63; Anthony and Benson 2003,165; Butts 1947, 156-7). He proposed that neither reason nor authority could provide legitimate knowledge without the support of experimental research (Burns 1969, 377-8). Furthermore, Bacon condemned scholastic wrangling and arguing as an outmoded method of teaching (Reed and Prevost 1993, 186).

 

In addition to his philosophical reflections on science, Bacon contributed to actual scientific accomplishments. His study and writings on optics served as an authoritative source for centuries, and in his experimental research, “He discovered much about magnifying lenses, and it seems more than probable that he invented the simple microscope. He demonstrated that light travels faster than sound, and he was apparently the first scientist to perceive the inaccuracy of the Julian calendar and to advocate its revision” (Butts 1968, 378).

Bacon himself came under a certain amount of criticism. According to Jeremiah Hackett, it appears that his own Franciscan Order condemned him in 1278 “on account of certain suspected novelties,” possibly due to his interests in astrology and alchemy. Bacon died at Oxford at the approximate age of eighty.

 

 

Bibliography

 

Anthony, Michael and Warren Benson. Exploring the History & Philosophy of Christian Education. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel, 2003.

Burns, Edward M. Western Civilizations: Their History and Their Culture 7th ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1969.

Butts, R. Freeman. A Cultural History of Education: Reassessing Our Educational Traditions. New York: McGraw Hill, 1947.

Elias, John L. A History of Christian Education: Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing, 2002.

Hackett, Jeremiah, "Roger Bacon," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/roger-bacon/.

Reed, James E. and Ronnie Prevost. A History of Christian Education. Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1993.

 

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Christian Humanism

Harley T. Atkinson

 

In the broadest sense, humanism has been applied to various movements throughout history, though with different stresses or emphasis—Greek humanism, classical humanism, Renaissance humanism, Christian humanism, and secular or scientific humanism. In each version of humanism there was or is an emphasis of some sort on the value of the individual or human existence. According to D. Bruce Lockerbie, much of contemporary Christian education has its roots in the early principles of Christian humanism (2001, 136). Humanistic educational theory of this time emphasized the study of Greek and Latin literature and challenged the learner to rediscover himself as a distinctly free human being (Anthony 2001, 146).

 

The bookends of humanism are the brand of Greek philosophy of the fifth and sixth centuries reflected in the dictum of Protagoras, “Man is the measure of all things,” and the secular or scientific humanism of the 20th and 21st centuries. Recent contributors (historically speaking) include Bertrand Russel (1872-1970) and John Dewey (1859-1952), both of whom contributed extensively to education and educational theory (Lockerbie 2001).

 

The Renaissance and Humanism

 

The Renaissance brought a radical ”demand for a broader expanse of knowledge, a new style of living, and a greater recognition of the status of the individual” (Burns 1969, 395) and it was a broad cultural movement that involved changes in politics, philosophy, theology and the fine arts. However the essence of Renaissance humanism is found in educational reform (Elias 2002, 67). Two phases emerged historically within the realm of Renaissance learning and education. The initial phase took place in Italy from the early fourteenth century to the close of the fifteenth century. The second phase took place in Northern Europe, primarily in Holland, England, and Germany, and manifested a significantly profounder emphasis on religious matters. It was this variety of humanism, John Elias rightly proposes, that influenced or formed the educational ideals of those who established institutions of higher education in North America. Humanism of this period of time has influenced both Protestant and Catholic efforts in contemporary Christian education (66-7).

 

Christian Humanism of Northern Europe

 

Christian humanism was embraced by the Protestant Reformers such as Martin Luther (1483-1546), Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560), Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) and John Calvin (1509-1564). However the most influential humanist was Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466-1536), the Prince of Humanists, who remained a Roman Catholic.

 

Desiderius Erasmus: the Prince of Humanists

 

Born out of wedlock in Rotterdam, Holland, Erasmus studied with the Brethren of the Common Life. The primary aim of his educational endeavors was to nurture good, intelligent Christians who were more concerned with deeds and high moral values than creeds and dogmatic extravagances (Reed and Prevost 1993, 182; Burns 1969, 434). Erasmus’ view of Christianity is reflected in his Handbook of the Militant Christian, where he expressed the notion that knowledge and prayer be complementary resources for the daily battle Christians fight against the forces of evil. He also set forth guidelines or rules for living the practical Christian life (Elias 2002, 79).

More of an educational theorist than practitioner (Reed and Provost 1993, 182), Erasmus was passionate about good education and wrote extensively on educational ideals. He strongly advocated universal education, especially when it included the study of Scriptures (80). In regard to teaching style, he advocated gentle, kind teaching, where students enjoyed learning (Ulich 1975, 99) and took a strong posture against corporal punishment (Elias 2002, 81). Teachers, he argued, should be well educated and trained (Gutek 1997, 82; Reed and Prevost 1993, 182) and understand the nature of the learner and laws germane to the educative process (Ulich 1975, 99). As a Christian humanist, Erasmus gave equal weight to the study of Christian writings of the church fathers and the classics (Greek and Latin languages and their literature). The vernacular and sciences, on the other hand, received no attention (Ulich 1975, 100; Gutek 1997, 82-3).

He also understood the importance of method in teaching, and recommended play, visual aids, games, prizes, competitions, and rewards in the teaching of children (Elias 2002, 81; Ulich 1975, 101). Finally, in regard to the learner, he believed that humans possess imagination and other innate urges including self-preservation, ambition, imitation, desire for attachment, and power of reason (Ulich 2002, 101; Elias 2002, 81).

 

The Reformers and Christian Humanism

 

The humanist movement within the Reformation differed from the humanism of Italy in that it had “less of the humanist confidence in the ability of men and women to shape themselves, emphasizing. . . the necessity of divine initiative and grace for all worthwhile human activity (Elias 2002, 86). Collectively the Reformers sought educational reform in the churches, public schools, universities, and the home.

 

Martin Luther

 

Luther differed from Erasmus in that while he held appreciation for the antiquities, he felt that they were of no consequence to religious devotion, whereas Erasmus held to the notion that “the goals of culture is the union of antiquity and Christianity” (Ulich 1975, 95). For Luther, only Christian revelation is sacred. Compared to other humanists, including Erasmus, who made piousness and culture the chief goals of education, Luther was more concerned with educating individuals to serve others in churches and civic orders (Elias 2002, 86). Three theological principles drove his zeal for educational reform: 1) the authority of the Bible (sola scriptura), 2) justification by faith (sola fide), and 3) the priesthood of all believers. These principles fostered a new vision for Christian education, whereby the aim was to train all believers to be priests before God. This meant making education universal, since one could know God personally, in part through the reading of Scriptures (Pazmiño 1997, 144).

 

Philip Melanchthon

 

Working closely with Luther in educational reform, was the Christian humanist Philip Melanchthon. Melanchthon, professor of Greek at Wittenberg, along with the Scriptures, held the traditional liberal arts in high regard. It is this program, argues Carl Meyer that makes Melanchthon a Christian humanist; this in turn helps us understand him as an educator (1975, 145-6). Along with Luther, Melanchthon played a significant role in the reform of the Saxony school system. Together they drew up a proposal for school reform, including the specification of subjects to be taught, hours of instruction, division of classes, and governance of schools (Meyer 1975, 153; Elias 2002, 91; Gutek 1997, 91).

 

John Calvin

 

Like Luther and Melanchthon, John Calvin’s educational ideals were embedded in the humanist tradition. His foundational ideal was pietas literata, “a piety enlightened by classical learning” (Elias 2002, 93). Calvin’s most notable contribution to education was the Geneva Academy that had a seven-year classical curriculum. The school was divided into a Schola privata (for children up to the age of sixteen) and a Schola publica, the university. The training in the college was clearly humanistic in nature. The students were thoroughly grounded in the Greek and Latin classics, in speaking and writing good Latin, as well as religious instruction (Elias 2002, 93; Towns 1975, 170-1).

 

Ulrich Zwingli

 

Ulrich Zwingli, a Reformer and priest from Zurich, Switzerland, was a strong supporter of humanism. Unlike Erasmus who was concerned with the education of the elite, Zwingli shared a desire of his fellow Reformers to bring education to the masses. He emphasized the study of Scriptures and favored an education of the young that would result in greatness in Christian living. He introduced elementary schools to Switzerland and published a short essay Of the Education of Youth. In this treatise he presented the proper goal of education as rendering the pupil as much like Christ as possible (Pipkin 1975, 131; Elias 2002, 92).

 

Bibliography

 

Anthony, Michael J. “Humanism, Christian.” In Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Michael J. Anthony, 345-49. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001.

Burns, Edward McNall. Western Civilizations: Their History and Their Culture 7th ed., Vol. I. New York: W. W. Norton, 1969.

Elias, John. A History of Christian Education: Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox Perspectives. Malabar, FL: Kreiger Publishing, 2002.

Gutek, Gerald L. Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Education: A Biographical Introduction, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1997.Lockerbie, D. Bruce. “Christian Humanism.” In Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, edited by Michael J. Anthony, 136-7. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001.

Meyer, Carl S. “Philip Melanchthon.” In A History of Religious Educators, edited by Elmer L. Towns, 144-160. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1975.

Pazmiño, Robert W. Foundational Issues in Christian Education 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1997.

Pipkin, H. Wayne. “Huldreich Zwingli.” In A History of Religious Educators, edited by Elmer L. Towns, 124-36. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1975.

Reed, James E. and Ronnie Prevost. A History of Christian Education. Nashville: Broadman &Holman Publishers, 1993.

Towns. Elmer L. “John Calvin.” In A History of Religious Educators, edited by Elmer L. Towns, 92-102. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1975.

Ulich, Robert. “Erasmus.” In A History of Religious Educators, edited by Elmer L. Towns, 167-75. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1975.

 

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School of Edessa

Harley T. Atkinson

 

The town of Edessa was located in southeast Turkey, present day Urfa. In 363 the city of Nisibis was taken by the Persians (more specifically the Sassanian Empire). Among the Christians who fled the city was Ephraem the Syrian (A. D. 306-373), who had been the head of the School at Nisibis. While Ephraem is associated or credited with the founding of the school in Edessa, this is not historically accurate (Baum and Winkler 2003, 21; Drijvers 1995, 51-52). Most likely the school existed centuries before Ephraem and over the centuries became Christianized (Drijvers 1995, 52).

 

When Ephraem arrived at Edessa the school appears to have been an informal group rather than an established academy such as Nisibis was. Most likely Edessa had long history of teacher-student circles that varieties of theological and philosophical thoughts were propagated. Han Drijvers (1995) assumes that at the time of arrival of Ephraem there were “Bardaisanites, Marcionites, and Manichaeans, besides pagans, astrologers, soothsayers and, of course Jews” (57). However with Ephraem’s leadership the school gradually developed into a well-known formal Christian academy (Baum and Winkler 2003, 21). Ephraem himself was an ascetic whose written works included poems, sermons, hymns, and exegetical writings. In addition, he vigorously debated and contended with the various heretical sects that were present in Edessa.

 

The reputation of Edessa as a significant place of theological scholarship and training continued long after the death of Ephraem. Edessa was the gateway through which the theological advances of the Roman church entered the East (22). Many of the 5th century students at Edessa became bishops in Persia, including Simeon of Beit Arsam, Marun Eloyoto, Acacius the Aramean, Absuto of Nineveh, John of Beit Garmay, Paul bar Qaqay of Karka, Abraham the Mede, and Narses the Leper. These bishops contributed significantly to the development and eventual acceptance of Nestorianism in the Persian church (Murphy1967, 103).

 

Eventually delegates of the School at Edessa became embroiled in a theological debate with Cyril of Alexandria at the Council of Ephesus (431) over the duel nature of Christ. Cyril and fellow delegates from Alexandria emphasized the unity of divinity and humanity of Christ, while the representatives of Edessa (Antiochenes) saw in Christ “two subjects, two persons, or two Sons (classical Nestroianism)” (Winkler 2003, 23). For a very brief time the two parties came closer together with Bishop Rabbula of Edessa changing sides. After the death of Rabbula in 435, Ibas became his successor as bishop followed by Narses in 437. Under the leadership of these two men, Edessa turned once again to Nestorianism. Finally in 489 Emperor Zeno forced Bishop Cyrus II to close the school and on the site of the school a church was erected honoring Mary, the Mother of God.

 

 

Bibliography

 

Baum, Wilheim and Dietmar Winkler. The Church of the East: A Concise History. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.

Drijvers, Jan Willem. “The School of Edessa: Greek Learning and Local Culture.” In Centres of Learning: Learning and Location in Pre-modern Europe and the Near East, edited by .Jan Willem Drijvers and Alasdair A. MacDonald, 49-59. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1995.

Murphy, F. X. “The School of Edessa.” In New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. V, edited by William J. McDonald et al., 103-4. Washington D. C.: The Catholic University of America, 1967.

 

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Early Vernacular Translations of the Bible

Harley T. Atkinson

 

Since the ordinary reader cannot read the Bible in the original Hebrew and Greek languages, there has long been a need to translate the Scriptures into the languages of the world. While the Latin Bible, particularly the Latin Vulgate created by Jerome between 383 and 405 A.D, remained dominant through the early centuries of Christianity, other translations in the vernacular began to appear in England and continental Europe in the early part of the Middle Ages and went hand in hand with the Reformation.

 

English Translations

 

The first translation of the complete Bible into the English language was undertaken by John Wycliffe (c. 1330-1384) and colleagues, completed in 1382 (Metzger 2001: 56). A second version was made by Wycliffe’s secretary John Purvey a short time later. Both were literal renderings of the Latin Vulgate. It is unlikely that Wycliffe himself took part in the actual work of the translation. Rather, it was under his inspiration that his friends and coworkers completed the work (Bruce 1978: 12-15; Vos 1975: 575; Cairns 1996: 245-6).

 

The first English translation of the New Testament to be printed was that of William Tyndale (c. 1494-1536). Translated from Erasmus’s Greek New Testament, it was published in two editions at Worms in 1525 and was significant because it had such a great influence on subsequent translations (Metzger 2001: 60). However, it was Myles Coverdale (1488-1569) who is credited with publishing the complete Bible in English in 1535. Known as the Coverdale Bible, it was translated from the Latin Vulgate, rather than directly from Hebrew and Greek (Vos 1975: 576). In 1537 there appeared a volume by John Rogers  (c. 1500-1555) known as Matthew’s Bible. About two-thirds of the translation is the work of Tyndale (Bruce 1978: 25; Cairns 1996: 321; Vos 1975: 576).

 

With two versions being freely circulated and read in England Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), Lord Protector of the British Commonwealth encouraged the revision of the Matthew Bible to make it more acceptable to the public. The task of the revision was entrusted to Coverdale and published in1540. It became known as the Great Bible because of its size, the largest of English Bibles published to that point (Vos 1975: 576; Bruce 1978: 67-71).

 

Roman Catholic persecution of Protestants in England made further translations impossible in that country, thus several Protestant scholars fled to Geneva where they worked on another revision of the Bible. William Whittingham (1524-1579) began the work with the revision of the New Testament in 1557 and the completion of a revision of the complete Bible in 1560, a task taken on by several scholars. The Geneva Bible was based primarily on the Great Bible in the Old Testament and Tyndale’s translation of the New Testament (Vos 1975: 578; Bruce 1978: 86-92).

 

Two lesser-known translations appeared between the publications of the Geneva Bible and the widely embraced and yet to come King James Version. The Bishop’s Bible (1568) was produced by the bishops of the Church of England and ceased printing in 1602. The authorities of the Roman Catholic Church approved the Rheims-Douay Bible, made from the Latin Vulgate. The Old Testament (1610) was published at the University of Douay in Northern France and the New Testament was produced at Rheims, France (1582) (Vos 1975: 578; Bruce 1978: 113; Metzger 2001: 67-9).

 

The most enduring English translation of the Bible from the Renaissance is the King James Version (1611).  Unhappy with the existing translations, King James I called for a new version of the Bible prepared by forty-seven of the best scholars in England. The translators used other translations (primarily the Bishop’s Bible) as a basis, but it was translated out of the original tongues. Commonly called the Authorized Version, the KJV is still the most popular and widely read English Bible (Vos 1975: 578; Bruce 1978: 96-100).

 

Translations in the Languages of Continental Europe

 

In Germany, Martin Luther (1483-1546) completed the translation of the New Testament in 1522, based on Erasmus’s edition of the Greek New Testament. The complete Bible, including the Apocrypha was published in 1534 (Cairns 1996: 285; Green 1964: 127). The German Bible not simply put the Scriptures into language of their own tongue; it was a critical epoch in the Reformation. J. H. Merle d’Aubigne (1832) writes, “It worked an entire change in society . . . . When the Bible began to be read in the families of Christendom, Christendom itself was changed” (78). In Switzerland Luther’s New Testament was adapted to the Swiss dialect in 1524; the whole Bible was published in 1530 (Schaff 1910: 63-4).

 

In France, Jacques Lefevre (1455-1536) completed a translation of the Bible into French, based largely from the Latin Vulgate in 1525 (Cairns 1996: 309); he also worked off of an earlier version of a French Bible (Lindsay 1907:142). Lefevre’s version was held in disregard by some Christians and Pierre Olivetan (c. 1506-1538) wrote a new translation based on the Hebrew and Greek texts (Cairns 1996: 308-9).

 

The first New Testament written in the Dutch language was published in 1523 (Cairns 1996: 315). The earliest version of the complete Dutch Bible was the Mennonite Bible (1558), later known as the Biestkens Bible (Lane 1977: 372). The first complete Czech Bible translated from Hebrew and Greek was the Kralice Bible (1593), written by the Unity of the Brethren in six volumes (Evans 1996: 185-6). The Danish Bible was the Christian III Bible translated by the Danish Reform Church in 1550 (Lane 1977: 372); Juan Perez de Pineda (c. 1500-1568) completed the New Testament into Spanish in 1556 while the first complete Spanish Bible appeared in 1569 (Lane 1977: 372); the first Finnish Bible was completed in 1642 (Liechty 1996: 107).

 

Bibliography

 

Bruce, F. F. History of the Bible in English 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.

Cairns, Earle E. Christianity Through the Centuries 3rd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1996.

D’Aubigne, J. H. Merle. History of the Reformation of the Sixteenth Century Vol. III. Translated by H. White. New York: American Tract Society, n.d.

Evans, R. J. W. “Bohemian Brethren.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation Vol. 1, edited by Hans J. Hillerbrand, 185-6. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Green, V. H. H. Luther and the Reformation. n.c.: Mentor Books, 1974.

Lane, Tony. “A Flood of Bibles.” In Eerdmans’ Handbook to the History of Christianity, edited by Tim Dowley, 368-72. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1977.

Lietchty, Daniel. “Finland.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation Vol. 2, edited by Hans J. Hillerbrand, 106-8). New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Lindsay, Thomas M. A History of the Reformation Vol II. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1907.

May, Herbert Gordon. Our English Bible in the Making. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1965.

Metzger, Bruce M. The Bible in Translation. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001.

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church Vol. VIII. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1910/1988

Vos, J. G. “Bible, English Versions.” In The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible Vol 1 , edited by Merrill C. Tenney, 571-82. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1975.

Wegner, Paul D. The Journey From Texts to Translations. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1999.